Three stave bowls or daubenschhalen with 2 hoops on display in the Archeologisches Landesmuseum Baden-Würtemberg in Konstanz, Germany.
A pair of stave bowls with a single hoop from the Wolfenbüttler Sachsenspiegel. Cod. Guelf. 3.1 Aug. 2°, folio 78verso, dated between 1345 and 1470. Herzog August Bibliothek, Wolfenbüttel, Germany.
Stave bowls used for bloodletting and as dog food bowls from the 13th-century manuscript Cod. in scrin. 47 (Fabulae Aesopicae), folio 21r. State and University Library Hamburg, Germany. https://resolver.sub.uni-hamburg.de/kitodo/HANSh782
Archaeological find of stave bowls in Groningen (van Deun and Vrede, 2015).
(A) Schematics of a stave from a stave bowl with two hoops. (B) The stave from the side perspective. The square around the stave shows how it would fit in the raw material. Image adapted from Ulbricht (2006).
Some stave bowls with one hoop from the Museum Holstentor, Lübeck, Germany
A stave bowl with 3 hoops from the Stadtisches Museum in Halberstadt, Germany.
Some of the reconstructed stave bowl based on the actual finds in Schleswig, also showing the differences in angles and sizes of the bowls. Bowls 1-9 have a single hoop groove, bowls 10-20 have a double hoop groove and bowl 21 has three hoop grooves. Drawings without actual measurement. Image from Ulbricht (2006).
The inside (A) and outside (B) of the same stave bowl from Schleswig. You can easily see the straight grain on the base as well as the staves. The base has chamfered edges. Image from Ulbricht (2006).
Oak wedge-shaped drivers for pushing the hoops onto the stave bowl. The heads of the wedges have an angle of around 15 degrees, which make them suitable as hoop drivers. A hammer strike on the driver head will less likely hit the actual bowl. Archaeological find from Schleswig. Adapted from Ulbricht, 2006.
Smoothing and thinning the pre-staves. a rim was added to the working area to support the pre-stave.
A stave bowl failure: The staves bend in all directions, leaving many visible gaps at the base.
Some preformed cherry wood staves.
One of the common artefacts unearthed during archaeological digs are small wooden wedge-shaped discs with a few notches. If several are found together, along with a round wooden disc, it is clear that it is a stave bowl (Duigenschaaltje in Dutch and Daubenschäle in German). Stave bowls are a typical medieval product; the peak of their production was between the 11th and 15th centuries. They were mainly used as inexpensive drinking vessels (Ulbricht, 2006) with a rather short lifespan. Contemporary manuscript illuminations showed that they also were used as blood collection vessels during bloodletting, or as dog food bowls. They could be characterized as the disposable cup of the Middle Ages.
To illustrate the large quantities involved: of the more than 7,000 wooden objects excavated in Schleswig, approximately 90% were from stave bowls (Ulbricht, 2006). In Lübeck (Germany), a city suspected of being a production center for stave bowls due to the discovery of many loose base plates, thousands of bowls and bowl parts have been found (Neugebauer, 1975). In a monastery in Freiburg (Germany), 2,271 individual staves were found, which together formed between 250 and 300 small bowls (Müller, 1996), and in Konstanz (Germany), 990 staves were excavated in a single location. Large quantities (214 stave bowls) have also been recovered in Groningen, the Netherlands (van Deun and Vrede, 2015).
Naturally, the quantity of wooden stave bowls recovered depends on the soil preservation conditions. In Schleswig-Holstein (Schleswig, Lübeck) these are good, but individual stave bowls have been recovered throughout Northern and Eastern Europe. From Novgorod (Russia; Brisbane and Hather, 2007) to Konstanz (Müller, 1996), and also in several locations in the Netherlands (Renaud, 1980; Dubbe, 2012).
Shape and variety of historical stave bowls
The large number of staves from Schleswig, Lübeck, Konstanz, and Freiburg allows us to compare the similarities and differences between the finds. For example, the vast majority are relatively low stave bowls, approximately 5-7 cm high. Many have a diameter of around 11 centimeters, resulting in a volume equivalent to about a pint glass (600 ml).
The number of grooves on the outside of a stave implies the same number of hoops for the bowl. The most common stave bowls have two hoops, but bowls with only one or three hoops are not uncommon. In fact, among the finds from Groningen and Amsterdam (the Netherlands), single-hoop bowls were found most in absolute numbers, whereas triple-hoop bowls were found in most locations. However, bowls with three hoops were generally rarer. An exceptional find is a bowl with six hoops found in Groningen. Generally speaking, the higher the bowl, the more hoops are used. The maximum size of a stave bowl found in Groningen was 15 cm (Van Deun and Vrede, 2015).
Some stave bowls with one hoop from the Museum Holstentor, Lübeck, Germany
Differences in bowl shapes can also be observed over the centuries. The finds in Schleswig indicate that the double-hoop shape was popular in the 13th century and that a gradual shift occurred to single-hoop bowls, a shape that was dominant in the 15th century (Ulbricht, 2006). Furthermore, there was a shift towards smaller and thinner staves in the later Middle Ages, and a shift towards a lower inner groove for the base plate.
Based on the staves found in Freiburg and Konstanz, the average length of a stave is 7.3 cm, with 90% of the staves having a length between 5 and 9 cm (Müller, 1986). From this value, an angle between 60 and 85 degrees can be calculated for the staves, with longer staves having a steeper angle. The angle of a stave affects how wide and high the bowl is: a larger angle creates a wider but lower bowl. An angle cannot be so large that the hoops can no longer grip it.
The height of the inner and outer grooves of the two-hoop staves was further examined. The upper outer groove is on average 3.7 cm (Freiburg) and 4.4 cm (Konstanz). It is striking that the position of the upper groove remains relatively constant, regardless of the stave's length, namely approximately 4 cm from the top. For the lower outer ring, it is on average 1.6 cm for Freiburg and 1.8 cm for Konstanz. The height does depend on the stave's length. It is higher for longer staves, and lower for shorter ones. The minimum height is 1 cm and the maximum is approximately 4.5 cm. The groove for the base plate is on average 1.5 cm for Freiburg and 2.1 cm for Konstanz staves. In other words, it is just below the lower hoop for Freiburg, while it is just above it for Konstanz. Compared to a modern disposable cup, the base is relatively high, but this prevents splintering of the groove and makes it easier to insert the bottom hoop.
Looking at the thickness of a stave, we see that the longer the staves, the thicker they become. For staves 5.6-7.4 cm high, the average thickness is 3 mm, increasing to an average thickness of 8 mm for staves 19 cm high. For the smallest containers (<5.6 cm), the range in thickness is greatest: between 0.5 and 6 mm. It goes without saying that only staves of the same thickness can be used for a single stave container.
The base of a stave bowl
Just like the staves, the base of a stave bowl consists of radially split wood. The vast majority of bases are chamfered on one side, but a small percentage are chamfered on both sides or not chamfered at all (Müller, 1996). The base diameter ranges from 7 to 13 cm, with a size of 11-12 cm being most common in the 13th-14th centuries (Ulbricht, 2006). The rough shape of the base with cut marks suggests that the bowls could easily be assembled (or modified) (Müller, 1986). Information about the thickness of a stave bowl base is more difficult to find, but according to archaeological drawings, it appears to be between 4-6 mm (Ulbricht, 2006). Some recovered bases have incised markings on the outside. These are likely ownership markings.
Wood types used
The vast majority of the bowls are made of softwood: the wood of the Norway spruce (Picea abies) and, to a lesser extent, the Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris). Silver fir (Abies abies) was not used due to its poor processing properties (defects in the wood and because it affects the taste of the drink in the bowl). After the Medieval period, we occasionally see stave bowls made from other woods, such as yew and oak (Woodan database; search for 'duigen' or 'duigenbakje'). The hoops generally consist of split twigs of deciduous wood, such as willow (Salix) and buckthorn (Frangula alnus) (van Deun and Vrede, 2015). Since the wood species used for the staves are neither native to the Netherlands nor to the German-Baltic coast, they must have been imported from elsewhere. Buckthorn is native to Lübeck and Schleswig, and semi-finished products have also been found in these cities. It therefore seems logical that the stave bowls reached the Netherlands as trade goods via the Hanseatic Route. This is different for the Alpine region (Konstanz and Freiburg). Here, Norway spruce is widely available, and the bowls could be made on site by a cooper.
Natural range of the Norway spruce (Picea abies) indicated in green. This is also its medieval range. The yellow areas indicate where the Norway spruce was found in later centuries. (for the Netherlands, spruce was introduced in the 18th century). (Wikipedia map)
Making stave bowls
The craft of "stave bowl maker" is neither mentioned nor depicted anywhere. The strong similarities with the cooper's craft make it plausible that it was incorporated into this guild. In the books of the Mendelschen Zwölfbruderstiftung in Nuremberg, a cooper is depicted several times along with his tools. Most of these tools are also necessary for making stave bowls.
Two medieval coopers from 1478 and 1425 practicing their trade. No stave bowls are visible, but the tools used in their production are: (left) a shaving horse, axe, chopping block, splitting knife, hammer, a driver to push the hoops in place, and presumably a hoop dog on the ground (the shape resembling a bench hook at the feet of the cooper). (right) a workbench, a hammer and a driver. Mendelschen Zwolfbrüderstiftung, Nuremberg, Germany, Book I, Folio 97 recto and Folio 25 recto.
The tools needed for making a stave bowl are, in no particular order: saw, croze saw, plane, axe, splitting knife or froe with a wooden mallet, shaving horse, drawknife/drawknife (flat and slightly curved), knife, chisel, driver, workbench, a clamp for shaping the staves, a marking gauge, and molds for making the stave bowl.
(1) A croze saw with 3 teeth found at the excavations in Schleswig. (2) The setting of the teeth. (3) Croze saw marks on a stave. Image from Ulbricht, 2006.
Oak wedge-shaped drivers for pushing the hoops onto the stave bowl. The heads of the wedges have an angle of around 15 degrees, which make them suitable as hoop drivers. A hammer strike on the driver head will less likely hit the actual bowl. Archaeological find from Schleswig. Adapted from Ulbricht, 2006.
(Re)construction of a stave bowl
Stave bowls are a ubiquitous commodity during the Middle Ages, but they are rarely found with medieval living history groups. This presented a challenge for us to recreate these bowls. In principle, the process should be simple, as they were inexpensive to produce. However, there are some snags in the reconstruction. Some practical adjustments to the theoretically described production process (Müller, 1896; Ulbricht, 2006) proved to be necessary. The following section describes our experiences assembling these stave bowls. It goes without saying that "practice makes perfect".
The sequence of the various steps in creating a stave can be roughly determined from the archaeological scrap pieces and semi-finished products found. Here, we see that first the edge is made on a stave, then the grooves are scored, then the grooves are actually cut out, and finally, during assembly, the width is adjusted when necessary (Müller, 1986). The staves are knot-free and contain no sapwood. Traces of a drawknife have also been found on the staves (Ulbricht, 2006).
The production process of a stave bowl illustrated. (A) Quarter-splitting thin pre-staves with a froe. (B) Smoothing the pre-staves with a drawknife. (C) Marking the edges with a template. (D) Cutting the edge with hand-held shears. (E) Smoothing the edge and planing it to size. (F) Mark grooves with a cross-cutting knife. (G) Score grooves with a notching knife. (H) Cut outer grooves diagonally. (I) Bend wet staves in a clamp. (J) Curved cherrywood staves. (K) Split and adjust the thickness of the willow twig. (L) Bevel the base plate. (M) Fit the staves around the base plate. (N) Press the lower willow hoop into place. (O) Seal with buttermilk.
1. Sawing to Length
The most efficient way to make the staves for a stave bowl is to have the logs sawn to the required length before splitting. This ensures the stave length remains consistent, minimizes waste, and minimizes the number of sawing passes. Post-sawing a thin stave is also much more critical, with a risk of breakage, than pre-sawing a log. Short pieces of log are also easy to split. When we started mass-producing the staves, we used the table saw in our workshop to cut the woodblocks to similar length.
2. Splitting Quarters
We split our wood using a froe. Initially, we didn't stick to the favoured medieval wood of Norway spruce, but used what was available in our workshop. This included two-year-dried cherry and freshly sawn birch logs, and finally, dried pine (from the hardware store). Straight grain and quarter splitting are essential to minimize warping when making and using the bowl. Splitting the wood was easiest with dry pine; wet birch produced a more rough surface with splinters during splitting. The dry cherry was the worst to work with, as it did not have a straight grain, and only yielded thick and irregular formed pre-staves.
Splitting birch pre-staves with a froe. The initial pre-stave has a thickness of 4-5 mm.
Splinters while making a pre-stave from the birch log.
Using a dried (commercial) pine block quickly produces pre-staves.
Several are visible on the ground between the shavings of the smoothing process (the next step).
3. Smoothing and Thickening
We used a drawknife on an English shaving horse to smooth and reduce the thickness of the pre-staves. An English shaving horse has the advantage of providing a full work surface that can be adjusted to a variable angle. A "German" shaving horse has a club-shaped clamp in the middle, which gets in the way of the work surface. During smoothing and thinning with the drawknife, we continuously alternated the top and bottom side, as well as the front and backside of the prestave to get an evenly thin surface.
Processing the dry cherry wood wasn't such a success, and it took a lot of effort to produce smooth slabs of 7-8 mm thick. A contributing factor was likely the cherry wood's uneven grain. The pine had a straight grain and cut easily with the drawknife. A stave thickness of 3 mm was easily achieved.
(note that we have removed the side bars of the English shaving horse)
The right-angled edge is on the narrower side; the beveled edge is made with a chisel on the slightly wider side.With the wet birch wood, we also easily achieved 2 mm, although smoothing it out was more difficult due to the wetness of the wood. On the other hand, you cannot make a watertight bowl from wet staves. As soon as they dry, they shrink, resulting in cracks in the bowl. Our beautiful birch stave bowl fell apart after a week due to shrinkage, and the base proved to be "too large" for the shrunken staves. Our original idea to make a stave bowl from a "log" to a "drinking bowl" in a single day was not feasible. The process likely took several days or weeks: first, splitting and slicing the wood to thickness, then drying it, followed by shaping the staves and the base, and then assembling the bowl.
4. Cutting the corners of the staves
On the right the template for a stave for our stave bowl with an 11 cm base plate; on the left the pencil markings on the pre-stave.
The wedge-shaped stave is made from the flat rectangular pre-stave. We sawed the first staves by hand after tracing the corners with a template (a ready-made stave). Sawing is a relatively labor-intensive process, and unsuitable for large-scale manufacturing. We were able to easily increase our production by replacing sawing with slicing – using hand-held metal shears. However, then the cutting direction (wide to narrow) must be taken into account to prevent breakage along the grain line. A similar, more medieval cutting method could be achieved using a clogmaker's knife.
The template used for marking is tailored to one specific type of bowl, of which a standard number (in our case, 10) fit around the (standard, here 11 cm) base plate of that type of bowl.
Using metal shears to cut the staves. Cutting direction is from wide to small. This means that the stave needs to be swapped upside down for the second cut, and thus also needs to be marked with a pencil on both sides. The actual cutting line is 1-2 mm from the pencil line, as the shears do not produce a smooth cut.
A somewhat modernised clogmakers knife. This youtube video shows how these versatile tools can be used for
other purposes than clogmaking and how this particular knife was made.
5. Smoothing the Stave Edges
The rough cut is easily smoothed with a block plane. Planing can either be by pulling the stave over the plane, or by pulling/pushing the a plane over the stave lying flat on the workbench. I found the latter producing a more stable straight (90 degrees) angle. In principle you can use any medium sized plane, but note that metal planes are heavier and thus more fatiguing in use than wooden ones. We used our Italian and French small bourdichon medieval planes for smoothing the stave edges. Also here, planing direction is from the wide part of the stave towards the small side.
Pushing the French medieval block plane over the flat stave. We found is more stable to make a 90 degrees angle.
When planing, the angle of the (small side of the) stave can also be adjusted slightly, but this is not necessary for a tight fit (the staves will be bent later in the process - step 7). Smoothing produces clean, straight edges that fit perfectly together later when assembling the bowl, preventing unwanted leakage. When assembling the bowl, the side of the last stave is often adjusted slightly with the plane to ensure a perfect fit.
Pulling the stave over the medieval Italian plane. Using stave pulling you can more easily change the angle.
6. Making the Grooves
A stave bowl has one inner groove (or croze) for the base and one or more outer grooves to hold the hoops. Our bowls have two outer grooves (and therefore two hoops). First, the position of the grooves is marked on a stave with a gauge. Ideally, you use a marking gauge with a knife point, as this also will produce a deeper cutting line. It is essential that the positions remain the same distance across all the staves, especially for the base plate and the stability of the bowl's base.
Cutting the lines for the grooves with a marking gauge with a knife point.
If you use a gauge with pins (instead of a knife) to mark the lines,
they need to be made deeper using a carving or marker knife.
The notches on the outside should prevent the connecting hoop from slipping. Therefore, a sharp (right-angled) edge is required on the narrower side and a beveled edge on the slightly wider side. The right-angled edge is created with a carving knife (or gauge), after which the beveled edge is chiseled out with a chisel.
Archaeological findings indicate that the croze (inner groove) for the base plate was sawn. A special type of saw exists for this purpose with various names, such as a croze saw, a gergel comb, or a gorgel knife with several thick saw teeth spaced at a fixed distance from a guide (Ulbricht, 2006; www.mot.be: ID 918 for the explanation of the names). We did not have such a saw at our disposal, so we tried it with a 2 mm thick saw blade on a saw board, which resulted in irregular depths of the cut. We then switched to scoring and cutting out the base groove with a narrow gouge. More work, but with a more consistent result.
An adjustable croze saw from 1925-1950. Its operation is similar to a cross-cut saw, only now with a short saw that can be adjusted for depth and distance. Photo: Fries Scheepvaartmuseum Leeuwarden, the Netherlands, Inv. No. FSM-1981-484.
Interestingly, Ulbricht (2006) states that sawing the croze inside a stave bowl only takes place after the staves have been hooped (and curved). This practice, however, is typical for making a much thicker barrel. The strength of a bottomless stave box is minimal; even light pressure from a croze saw can cause the staves to slide inward. This is possible for staves from much sturdier barrels, but the few mm thick staves of a stave box have no room to shift. In our opinion, the croze is applied earlier.
Exterior (left) and side view (right) of a stave for two hoops.
7. Bending the Staves
We had made a stave bowl with these straight and quarter-sawn staves, but when filling the bowl with water, the staves didn't behave perfectly. Some bent inward due to the tension, others outward. This is very detrimental to the watertightness of the bowl, especially at the bottom. And frankly, you don't want the first few liters of water to simply leak out before the seams close when you fill your bowl with wine or beer. If we wanted a dry stave bowl that was already somewhat watertight, the staves had to be slightly pre-formed, so it would be impossible to bend the other way later.
A stave bowl failure: The staves bend in all directions, leaving many visible gaps at the base.
In order to pre-form the staves, we made a clamp consisting of a slightly concave and convex plank. Then we re-wetted staves the staves and clamped them between, until the staves were dry again. The resulting slightly curved staves were better and easier to position around the base plate and did not deform. We now could easily drink a beer from our stave bowl.
The rewetted staves were clamped between the molded boards.
Around 8 staves fitted together in the mold.
8. Making the Base
The base is made from the same material as a stave: a quarter-split slab. For most stave bowls, the base surface area is significantly larger than that of a stave, and so is the required slab (our cherrywood bowl has a small base and narrow staves due to its relatively thin stem). The base circle was marked on the slab with a compass and cut out with a frame saw (or a bandsaw), filing it as needed. The edges of the base were chamfered with a plane to the thickness of the stave's base groove).
9. Building the Bowl
Building the bowl using a rough leather hide glued to a piece of wood as a base.
Building the stave bowl is the most difficult process. Initially, we noticed that the staves constantly shifted or slipped when fitting them around the base. We tried to remedy this by creating a rough base. Sand (not stable enough) and clay (too inflexible, wet, and makes a dirty bowl rim) proved unsuitable. A rough rubber mat or rough leather hide stretched across a flat surface worked best. A stable and correct base plate height was also essential. For this purpose, we created a height-adjustable "block tower" on a wooden peg for the base plate to rest on. A professional medieval stave maker likely had one standard block for each type of bowl ready in their workshop. With the base plate at the correct height, the staves are placed around it as tightly as possible. The last stave is then planed to fit. This is also reflected in archaeological finds, where one of the staves in a bowl has a slightly different size.
Using clay as a base made it difficult to shift the staves a little.
Also clay is wet, and dirtied the drinking rim of this cherry stave bowl.
Sealing the pores of the stave bowl with buttermilk.
10. Making and Placing the Hoops
We attempted to assemble the stave bowls using willow bark, willow and buckthorn heartwood, and (wet) leather cord, with varying degrees of success. Willow bark (from a willow branch) was easy to shape into a hoop, but its strength was minimal and it quickly fell apart. Hemp rope expands faster than the staves when it gets slightly damp, which also results in a poorly functioning bowl. A leather cord works well on its own and makes a sturdy basket, but when the staves start expanding (due to the fluid inside), the tension becomes too great and the leather breaks.
One of the failures: weak but flexible willow bark and wicker around a cherrywood stave bowl.
Willow bark will only function for a stave bowl if it holds dry contents like nuts.
Preparing a willow twig. The sapwood is peeled or shaved off and the twig is evenly thinned until it is flexible with a knife or wide-mouthed plane.
Actually, only the heartwood of a willow branch worked well as a hoop. We kept fresh, thin willow twigs wet in a water barrel for a while until use. The fresh willow twig was peeled and debarked. Then, the twig was split in half with a carving knife and made supple and thin. Thinning can be done in several ways: with the same carving knife or with a wide-mouthed block plane. The block plane (in our case a Stanley No 61), in particular, quickly produced a usable and flexible twig. The hoop twigs dry out quickly and needed to be kept in water until use as a hoop.
A stave bowl with a willow hoop (A) and one with a alder buckhorn hoop (B).
You can see the knots on the alder buckthorn twig.
Alder buckthorn heartwood has a yellowish colour and also functions well as a hoop. However, it has some disadvantages compared to willow. First, it is smelly when wet. Secondly, it contains a lot of miniature knots (where the leaves were attached) which makes smoothing the twig less easy. On the positive side, contrary to the name, alder buckthorn has no thorns. Curiously, alder buckthorn is also known as breaking buckthorn, because of its brittle twigs. We did not experience any brittleness of the twigs. In fact, once the alder buckthorn twigs were smoothed, they bended easier than the willow twig.
Archaeological finds of stave bowl hoops from Schleswig. Images 5 and 6 show that the twig wraps around the other.
Image from Ulbricht, 2006.
Archaeologically recovered willow hoops are 5-8 mm wide and show that one end of the twig wraps around the other. For a hoop for a stave bowl with a 10 cm base, a twig of approximately 55 cm is needed. The hoop is folded to the correct – tight – size beforehand, after which it is pushed around the bowl using a wooden driver by hand (we do not need a coppers hammer for the driver). The wide top hoop is placed first, followed by the smaller hoop at the bottom of the bowl. After drying, the protruding parts of the hoop twig are cut off.
Placing the wide top hoop first.
Carefully pushing it down with the fingers.
Using a wooden driver for the last fit. It feels a bit like fitting a new tyre on the wheel of your bike. 
Placing the second, smaller hoop on the bottom of the stave bowl.
11. Waterproofing
The final touch for achieving the desired waterproofing is a treatment with buttermilk. This is a simple and effective method for sealing small pores, common not only for wooden objects (Podcast Prehistorisch Dorp, 2023), but also used in earlier times to seal the pores of baked clay cups. Pine resin has sometimes been found in recovered stave bowls, possibly as an aid in waterproofing, but most bowls show no discernible finish. Finally, we have succeeded in making waterproof stave bowls, and as more are made, it becomes easier. However, a bowl with only one hoop remains a major challenge for us.
A waterproof stave bowl.
Bram drinking beer from his own made stave bowl.
Afterword
After two years, our first waterproof stave bowls are still in good shape and remain waterproof. They have survived storage and moving to and fro to the historical open air museum where reside as a living history group. They seem more sustainable than the previously thought 'medieval disposable cup'.
The reconstructed pine stave bowl with wicker hoops: side, bottom and top view.
This blogpost is a translated and extended version of our article 'Middeleeuwse duigenschaaltjes – geschiedenis en (re)constructie' from the Gildebrief (2024). A pdf from this post can be found here.
Sources:
- AOC Archaeology group, 2021-2023. Bowled over. Blogpost. Available at: https://www.aocarchaeology.com/key-projects/conservation-perth-city-hall/bowled-over (this is a nice preservation project of a stave bowl from Scotland)
- Brisbane, M. and Hather, J. (eds.), 2007. Wood use in medieval Novgorod. Oxbow Books, Oxford, UK.
- Dubbe, B., 2012. Huusraet. Het stedelijk woonhuis uit de Bourgondische tijd. Uitgeverij Poldervondsten, Hoorn, Nederland.
- Müller, U., 1996. Holzfunde aus Freiburg, Augustinereremitenkloster und Konstanz. Herstellung und Funktion einer Materialgruppe aus dem späten Mittelalter. Zugl.: Kiel, Univ., Diss., 1991/92. Stuttgart: Theiss (Forschungen und Berichte der Archäologie des Mittelalters in Baden-Württemberg, 21).
- Müller, U., 2008. Drechslern und Böttchern – Holz verarbeitende Handwerke. In: Archäologie und mittelalterliches Handwerk. Soester Beiträge zur Archäologie band 9. Westfälischer Verlagsbuchhandlung Mocker und Jahn, Soest, Germany, pp. 169-200.
- Neugebauer, W., 1975. Arbeiten der Böttcher und Drechsler aus den mittelalterlichen Bodenfunden der Hansestadt Lübeck. In: Renaud, J.G.N. (eds.), Rotterdam Papers II. A contribution to medieval archaeology, pp. 117-137.
- Podcast Prehistorisch dorp: houtwerken, 2023. Een discussie over houtbewerking in de middeleeuwen met wetenschappers, professionals en experimenteel archeologen.
- Renaud, J.G.N., 1980. Klein gedraaid houten huisraad uit de Middeleeuwen. Nederlands Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek 31, Nederlandse kunstnijverheid en interieurkunst, pp. 24-35.
- Ulbricht, I., 2006. Das geböttcherte Holz aus dem mittelalterlichen Schleswig. In: Holzfunde aus dem mittelalterliche Schleswig. Ausgrabungen in Schleswig. Berichte und Studien 17. Wachholtz Verlag, Neumünster, Germany, pp. 97-198.
- Van der Gaag, M. and Van de Pas, B., 2024. Middeleeuwse duigenschaaltjes – geschiedenis en (re)constructie. Gildebrief 2024, pp. 28-35.
- Van Deun, Y. en Vrede, F., 2015. Houten duigenbakjes uit de Late Middeleeuwen en Vroegmoderne Tijd. Paleo Aktueel 26, pp. 99-106.
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